The Entering of a Non-traditional Sport :: Genders Athletics Essays

The Entering of a Non-traditional Sport There ar both many social and cultural cost and benefits of an individual (male or female) entering a non-traditional sport for their gender/sex. First, there are a variety of benefits. When women and men enter non-traditional sports, they are showing gild that sports dont have to be limited to one sex or the other. Women and men are setting an example for everyone most them that you people should do whatever you they want to do no matter what. The entering of a non-traditional sport may be easier for an individual when there is collateral feedback from the people around him/her. For example, I dont think that Bev (in the movie Pumping Iron II) would have been able to continue to weight lift if she didnt have such positive and encouraging coaches and family.Another benefit of entering a non-traditional sport may just simply involve the use of skill. Although a sport, may not be traditional for a certain sex, athletic capability may be enhan ced by participating in these other sports. For example, many football players sign up concert dance lessons to work on their balance, grace, and stability. This kind of function shows that ballet can be used for just performing ballet or it could mean that ballet is useful for other types of performance.Another way to look at entering a non-traditional sport as beneficial is by looking at upward social mobility. Participation in a certain sport can allow a person to better their chances of getting out of a situation or circumstance. An obvious example of upward social mobility is in the movie Girlfight. Diana has a chance to get out of her home and community through her affaire in boxing. Because Diana is a women in a non-traditional sport, her chances of getting out are increased, unlike the many male boxers around her. Because other women boxers are rare, the demand for other competitors is high. Being an individual in a non-traditional sport shows uniqueness, and if that ind ividual is good at what they do, this can bring in more aid and possibly help in achieving other things such as athletic scholarships.Also, in regards to females entering non-traditional sports, there is the benefit of proving to themselves and others that women are just as capable, if not even better, as men in performing certain tasks. This would not be such a big deal if historically sports werent completed with men and only mens participation and skill emphasized.

Scholarship Essay: Im Fascinated by the Universe :: College Admissions Essays

Did life exist on Mars?   What would it take to build a spaceship that could travel at the speed of light?   When will the corn liquor be colonized?   These argon just some of the questions that wander through my mind all day. Fascinated by the secrets of the universe, I yearn to uncover mysteries. In order to blast open all the closed gates between knowledge and myself, I need the powerful tools of education.   After I graduate from superior school, I plan to attend a college or university that has strong mathematics and science departments. Even now, I am actively preparing to enter the realm of science, victorious college-level math and physics classes through the Running Start program. Upon receiving a college degree, my life-long dream is to engage in scientific research for NASA.   Unfortunately, most colleges notable for their academic standards are also renowned for costly tuition. My family consists of one working parent and two children who w ish to attend college.

History of the Computer :: essays papers

History of the ComputerThe history of the computer provoke be dated back for years and years and there is slake much more to learn and know as we advance our knowledge with this technology. Websters Dictionary defines computer as, any programmable electronic device that can store, retrieve, and process entropy (A brief 2004).The core word compute in computer has been termed for over 2000 years. In the beginning, a wooden rack holding strings by devil horizontal bars was the very first calculating machine recorded. The beads were manually moved around by the substance abuser and were only used by the user who knew the rules of programming in order for the wooden calculator to be accurate. It is said that the wooden calculator was able to do all regular arithmetic (Meyers 2001). The many an(prenominal) different parts of a computer as we now know it did not just appear in unity machine created by one person. Starting in the 1640s, many people began to work on machines tha t would mechanize tasks, with results that we still use today (In the beginning 2004). Records exist of earlier machines, but Blaise public address system invented the first hand powered commercial calculator that can add numbers entered with dials (Meyers 2001). He is credited with building the first digital calculator. Although attempts to multiply mechanically were made by Gottfried Liebnitz in the 1670s the first true multiplying calculator appears in Germany shortly before the American Revolution (A brief 2004). Charles Xavier created the first successful calculator which was able to add, subtract, multiply, and divide (Meyers 2001).In the early 1800s, Charles Babbage began a life long quest for a programmable machine. (A brief 2004). He invented machines that are called as calculating engines. railway locomotive number one was the first successful automatic calculator that was able to work on its own. This calculator consisted of over 2000 parts (The early 1996). A l arge(p) problem that Babbage had would be many engineering problems which would not allow his engines to work correctly. He is remembered and is important to computer history because of his idea for the machines. His basic ideas of how the machine would process information is still used to this day (In the beginning 2004).As the late 1800s came around, a man named Herman Hollerith developed a computing machine that can read into punched cards.

Concretions :: essays research papers fc

Dating back to the 18th century concretions have been known as geologic curiositys due to the various sizes, shapes and compositions. Concretions have also been thought to be dinosaur eggs, extra-terrestrial debris, human artifacts and animal and plant fossils. Due to these curiositys I will try and enlighten you more on these in the following by explaining the process in which they atomic number 18 formed and explaining some locations where they lowlife be found in large outcrops.     The word "concretion" is derived from the Latin "con"-- meaning "together" -- and "cresco" -- meaning "to grow."      Concretions are hard compact accumulations of mineral matter and are found inside sedimentary rocks. Some examples of this are Sandstone and in some weathered volcanic rock. Concretions come in many contrary shapes and the most common of the shapes is spherical or disk shaped. Concretions are the most va ried-shaped rocks of the sedimentary world. The way concretions come to be is the mineral matter concentrates around the centre of a host rock. The nucleus is often organic such as a tooth or leaf or shell or fossil. As the mineral matter concentrates around the nucleus it forms harder zones known as nodules.     Concretions are very odd in the sense that they very in size, shape, color and hardness. Often concretions are mistaken for bones, fossils, meteorites and other odd objects. They can be so small that it requires a magnifying glass to be visible or as large as 10 feet in diameter and weigh hundreds of pounds. Concretions can also have somewhat of regular shapes such as boxes, blocks, flat disks, pipes, cannon balls and have scour been known to resemble parts of a human body such as a foot or ribs.     Concretions are most commonly sedate of calcite but sometimes can be composed of iron oxide or iron hydroxide such as goethite. But a lso concretions can be composed of other minerals ranging from siderite, ankerite, dolomite, pyrite, baryite and gypsum.     Concretions form in many different ways. The box shape of some ironstone concretions most often depend on the way a sandstone or shale bed breaks up due to the action of weathering into regular blocks of various sizes. The way in which this disengagement takes place along natural planes of weakness in a rock such as a horizontal bedding surface and vertical joints. Before this process of separation, as well as during the separation ground water soaks into the rock and circulates through the planes of weakness making the rock more porous.

Plate Tectonics Essay -- essays research papers

The theory of plate tectonics, only recently introduced to the world, transforms the thought that the earth has been the alike(p) since its beginning. The theory alters the view of the average person almost in the way that Columbus showed the world was round. The theory of plate tectonics was developed from the theories of continental swim and sea-floor spreading and states that the earths surface is divided into several large plates, which are constantly in motion. In 1912, Alfred Wegener, a German scientist, was the first to ceremony this and develop the theory of plate tectonics. He noticed that the earths continents fit together almost like a jigsaw puzzle. This, combined with the item that similar fossils and rock types are found on different continents separated by large bodies of water, helped him formulate his conjecture. He contended that the plates at one point form one large continent called Pangea, which allowed like fossils and rock types to become closer together, which broke apart. Despite how well the continents fit together and the facts about the geology, the general earthly concern would not accept Wageners proposal. This is largely due to religious conflicts and the lack of evidence presented to them.The earths surface and the mantle make up the stem of the tectonic plates. This layer, called the lithosphere, rests on top of the asthenosphere, a layer of molten rock. The asthenosphere is constantly moving and flowing due to the extreme pressures...

Plate Tectonics Essay -- essays research papers

The theory of plate tectonics, only recently introduced to the world, transforms the thought that the acres has been the same since its beginning. The theory alters the view of the average person almost in the way that Columbus showed the world was round. The theory of plate tectonics was developed from the theories of Continental drift and sea-floor spreading and states that the earths surface is divided into several large plates, which are constantly in motion. In 1912, Alfred Wegener, a German scientist, was the freshman to notice this and develop the theory of plate tectonics. He noticed that the earths continents fit together almost like a jigsaw puzzle. This, combine with the fact that similar fossils and rock types are found on different continents separated by large bodies of water, helped him formulate his conjecture. He contended that the plates at one excite formed one large continent called Pangea, which allowed like fossils and rock types to become closer together, which broke apart. Despite how well the continents fit together and the facts about the geology, the public public would not accept Wageners proposal. This is largely due to religious conflicts and the lack of evidence presented to them.The earths surface and the mantle make up the composition of the tectonic plates. This layer, called the lithosphere, rests on top of the asthenosphere, a layer of molten rock. The asthenosphere is constantly moving and flowing due to the extreme pressures...

Primary Prevention of Breast Cancer

Choose a health topic related to aboriginal saloon, secondary barroom, or tertiary cargon. Explain why this is an important topic of discussion based on your personal belief, and based on valid research. Paper should be 1. 5 2 p whiles. APA format must be followed. Detailed assignment information exit be provided. Breast crabby person is the most common form of crab louse in women and the 2nd most leading cause of their death. It is estimated that 1 in 8 women will be diagnosed with titmouse piece of asscer in their feeling time and it will claim as many as 40,000 lives in the US notwithstanding. ( http//www. national dumbbell dopecer. rg/breast-malignant neoplastic disease-facts) Primary prevention crowd out play a key role in considerably reducing the chances of developing breast cancer Early detection through screening can make treatment process easier and less extensive. Primary prevention is all about reducing the risk factors that may enhance ones chjances of ge tting breasts cancer specially if there is a history of breast cancer in the family. Long frontier heavy smoking and alcohol consumtion can increase the chances of developing breast cancer. (http//www. cancer. org/acs/groups/content/epidemiologysurveilance/documents/document/acspc-030975. df American cancer society) streak is the best cure is a very wise proverb. Necessary precautions can prevent major health problems altogether. The major focus of primary prevention is to prevent a diseases before it occurs. One of doing so is by controlling the risk factors in healthy people that may lead to the disease. There ar several different approaches such as clinical prevention which includes interactions with a health proifessional, community based efforts such as awareness programs, laws and plocies etfc. , and work personate health programs that promote healthy life style etc.Family history of breast cancer can almost double the risk of getting breast cancer which makes the Its impo rtant to cultivate a healthy life style to avoid this problem altogether and promote healthy habits and activities than can reduce the chances significantly. Since breast cancer prevention are risk based Determining the risk factor is the first step in designing a prevention plan. Chemoprevention, tamoxifen although can help reduce the risk factors by as much as half but they dont come without their own risk are not widely practiced.Therefore, primary prevention which is now evolving itself to include cancer screening, imaging, pathalogial findings and level od suspicion etc along with computer programs and special algorithms can help reduce the chances and early detection. The trends show that breast cancer has been on the rise and many people dont have access to treatment and affordability is some other factor. Between 1975 to 1990 it increases and then dcresed byh 2. 34 percent between 1990 and 2002. Black women have a higher percent time of mortality compared with the rest of t he races in the US.Dying of Breast crab louse in the 1800sThere are many factors that determine the risk of getting cancer. In female the risk increases with age which can be coped with ad exclusivelying to a new life style and observing high precaution. Family history (first or second degree of relation) can increase the risk higher and if more than one family member had cancer it would increase the risk even further thats why education of such people right from the first case is very important. Girls from young age should be nurtured in a way to adopt a healthy life style and a life style that decreases the chances of getting breast cancer.Different levels of reproductive Hormones that change with a fair sexs age andfor some other reasons such as pregnancy and nulliparity etc also play a role in determining the risk factors. Mind benign breast malfunction can also increase the chances of having breast cancer in later stages of a woman/s life. Irradiation at early age also incre ases risks of getting breast cancer. Prevention through lifestyle. Diet and nutritions is controversial but fat consumtion has been associated with breast cancer.Different studies have shown conflicting results and therefore this area is open for more research. Obesity, however, has been clearly associated with raising the risk factor just like smoking and long term alcohol consumtion does too. Primary prevention. Life style modification studies have yielded different and controversial results. However, disregarding the impact od life syle change, it can lead to give way health over all as well reduce the over all risk factor. This may include physical activity, healthy weight, avoiding smoking and adjustment alcohol consumption.Ec. Women with high risk of cancer due to genetic mutation may consider non Some primary prevention measures such as galosh oophorectomy in young women(35 and under) has shown to reduce the breast cancer by 60 percent but this surgery comes with many unpl easant symptoms. Such as mood changes, night sweats and hot flashes etc. Prophylactic mastectomy which is the removal of both or one breast is also a primary prevention techniques but its drawbacks may outweigh its benefits. Therefor this practice is limited to women with a very high risk of breast cancer.Chemoprevention techniques such as tamoxifen and raloxifene can reduce the risk to one half. But this form of prentive techniques such as tamoxifen shows an increased risk of endometrial cancer in women over the age of 500 (PRIMARY PREVENTION OF BREAST CANCER, SCREENING FOR EARLY DETECTION OF BREAST CANCER, AND DIAGNOSTIC EVALUATION OF CLINICAL AND MAMMOGRAPHIC BREAST ABNORMALITIES Therese B. Bevers) Although most women may not deveop cancer in their life time but prevention techniques and precautions and habits can ensure early detection. Primary prevention saves time, costs related to the treatment, discomfort and pain.CLINICAL REVIEW Women at High Risk for Breast CancerWhat the Primary Care Provider Needs to Know Nelia Afonso, MD Primary prevention would encompass not only a healthy life style which includes measures to avoid exposure to carcinogen exposure and health promoting activieties and habits . the focus is block the cancer from eve ndeveloping or delay its ontogenesis to malignancy. And for people who have a high risk of cancer (due to genetic mutation etc ), it includes administration of chemopreventive agents or surgeries that require removal of some body parts. ( http//www. ns. org/ClinicalResources/BreastCancer/Prevention/Types) Environmental factors exposure to insecticides etc can increase the chances of developing cancer. ( http//www. cancer. gov/cancertopics/pdq/prevention/breast/HealthProfessional/page2) http//www. cancer. org/acs/groups/content/epidemiologysurveilance/documents/document/acspc-030975. pdf self examination. Periodic mammography 40 percent cases of cancer can be avoided just by making lifestyle changes. (http//www. kingsfun d. org. uk/projects/gp-commissioning/ten-priorities-for-commissioners/primary-prevention)Regular primary care can reduce mortality rate over a period of just 5 years. (http//sphhs. gwu. edu/departments/healthpolicy/dhp_publications/pub_uploads/dhpPublication_3BBD241A-5056-9D20-3DC72347BA069B17. pdf) having a primary care physician decreases the likelihood of getting diseases and increases the effectiveness and appropriateness of care. Having one particular person as a primary health provider means fewer prescriptions and fewer tests more and decrease of emergency care. Primary health care can reduce expenses. Hospitalization and bring time can be avoided. Interventions such as smoking

Financial statement Essay

Write a flipper- to seven-page financial bid psychoanalysis of a public comp any, formatted according to APA room as outlined in the Ashford Writing Center. In this analysis, you will discuss the financial health of this union with the ultimate goal of making a testimonial to other investors. Your paper should consist of the following sections introduction, company overview, horizontal analysis, ratio analysis, final recommendation, and conclusions. Your paper needs to include a minimum of devil bookish resources in addition to the textbook as references.Here is a breakdown of the sections within the body of the assignmentCompany OverviewProvide a brief overview of your company (one to two paragraphs at most). What industry is it in? What are its main products or services? Who are its competitors?Horizontal Analysis of Income Statement and Balance SheetPrepare a three-year, horizontal analysis of the income estatement and balance sheet of your selected company.Discuss the im portance and meaning of horizontal analysis. Discuss both the positive and negative trends presented in your company. ratio AnalysisCalculate the live ratio, quick ratio, cash to current liabilities ratio, over a two-year period. Discuss and interpret the ratios that you calculated. Discuss potential runniness issues based on your calculations of the current and quick ratios. Are there any factors that could be erroneously influencing the results of the ratios? Discuss liquidity issues of competitive companies within the same industry. passBased on your analysis, would you recommend an individual invest in this company? What strengths do you protrude? What risks do you see? It is perfectly acceptable to state that you would recommend avoiding this company, as long as you provide support for your position.BusinThink about your resume from twenty-four hours one. Yes, you want your diploma to be the feature point of the resume. However, you also want to put anything else youcan on it. Work-study, summer job or internship experience is a big plus. Also cultivate opportunities through extra-curricular activities that appeal to you.Business AccountingFinal PaperFocus of the Final PaperWrite a five to seven page financial statement analysis of a public company, and formatted according to APA style as outlined in the Ashford Writing Center. In this analysis you will discuss the financial health of this company with the ultimate goal of making a recommendation to other investors. Your paper should consist of the following sections introduction, company overview, horizontal analysis, ratio analysis, final recommendation, and conclusions.Here is a breakdown of the sections within the body of the assignmentCompany OverviewProvide a brief overview of your company (one to two paragraphs at most). What industry is it in? What are its main products or services? Who are its competitors?Horizontal Analysis of Income Statement and Balance SheetPrepare a three-year horizonta l analysis of the income statement and balance sheet of your selected company. Discuss the importance and meaning of horizontal analysis. Discuss both the positive and negative trends presented in your company.Ratio AnalysisCalculate the current ratio, quick ratio, cash to current liabilities ratio, over a two year period. Discuss and interpret the ratios that you calculated. Discuss potential liquidity issues based on your calculations of the current and quick ratios. Are there any factors that could be erroneously influencing the results of the ratios? Discuss liquidity issues of competitive companies within the same industry.RecommendationBased on your analysis would you recommend an individual invest in this company? What strengths do you see? What risks do you see? It is perfectly acceptable to state that you would recommend avoiding this company as long as you provide support for your position.

Assignment – Principle to Accounting

nous 1 (Total 10 Marks) Instructions Indicate in which journal the proceeding given below would be recorded by placing the appropriate journal abbreviation in the space provided. AbbreviationJournal GJGeneral Journal CB coin & Bank Book SJ gross sales Journal SRSales stop Journal PJPurchases Journal PRPurchases Return Journal CB 1. Received cash on outstanding amount from customer. SR 2. Customer returned mathematical product sold on account. CB 3. interchange merchandise to customer for cash. GJ 4. Owner withdrew merchandise for personal use. GJ 5.Paid shipping charges on merchandise purchased on account. GJ 6. Purchased office equipment on credit. PJ 7. Credit purchase from supplier. GJ 8. Recorded adjusting entries. SR 9. Returned damage merchandise to supplier which has not paid yet. SJ 10. Sold merchandise to customer on account. Question 2 (Total 22 Marks) Instructions Given the presentation information in silva Trading, prepare appropriate entries for the month of August 2012 0. Aug. 1Sold merchandise for cash $300. Dr Cash$300 Cr Sales$300 1. Aug. 2Purchased merchandise from ABC Co. n account for $5,000 terms 2/10, n/30. 2. Aug. 4Sold excess land for $7,000 accepting a 2-year, 12% note. The land was purchased for $7,000 last year. 3. Aug. 6Sold merchandise to D. fossa on account for $930, terms 2/10, n/30. 4. Aug. 8Accepted a sales return of defective merchandise from D. Stonecredit granted was $280. 5. Aug. 11Purchased merchandise from tan Hardware on account for $1,800 terms 1/10, n/30. 6. Aug. 12Paid freight of $200 on the shipment from ABC Co. in cash. 7. Aug. 15Received payment in estimable from D. Stone by cash. 8. Aug. 19Paid ABC Co. n full by cheque. 9. Aug. 20Paid Tanner Hardware in full by cheque. 10. Aug. 27Purchased office supplies for $250 cash. Question 2 reception Date Account Debit ($) Credit ($) Aug. 1 Cash 300 Sales 300 Aug. Purchases 5,000 ABC Co. 5,000 Aug. 4 Notes receivable 7,000 Land 7,000 Aug. 6 D.Stone 930 Sales 930 Aug. 8 Sales return 280 D. Stone 280 Aug. 1 Purchases 1,800 Tanner Hardware 1,800 Aug. 12 Carriage inward 200 Cash 200 Aug. 5 Cash 637 Discount allowed 13 D. Stone 650 Aug. 19 ABC Co. 5,000 Bank 5,000 Aug. 20 Tanner Hardware 1,800 Bank 1,782 Discount received 18 Aug. 7 authorization supplies 250 Cash 250 Question 3 (Total 48 Marks) Instructions Based on your entries done in Question 2, prepare, for the month of August 2012 a) Adjusted trial rest period (24 Marks) b) Income statement (12 Marks) c) Balance sheet (12 Marks)Silva Trading Trial Balance as at July 31, 2012 Account TitlesDr. Cr. Cash500 Bank9,075 prepay Insurance2,000 Freehold Lands31,000 Notes due26,000 F. Santos, Capital15,000 F. Santos, Drawing2,000 Sales17,125 Purchase6,400 Salaries Expense4,000 Supplies Expense1,500 Insurance Expense1,200 Interest Expense500 Interest Payable 50 Total58,17558,175 Question 3(a) Answer Silva Trading Trial Balance for the period ended 31st August 2012 Account Titles Debit ($) Credit($) Cash 987 Bank 2293 Prepaid Insurance 2000 Freehold Lands 24000 Notes Payable 26000 F. Santos, Capital 15000 F.Santos, Drawing 2000 Sales 18355 Purchase 13200 Salaries Expense 4000 Supplies Expense 1500 Insurance Expense 1200 Interest Expense 500 Interest Payable 50 Notes receivable 7000 Sales return 280 Discount allowed 13 Discount received 18 Carriage inwards 200 Office supplies 250 _____ _____ Total 59423 59423 Question 3(b) Answer Silva Trading Income statement for the period 31st August 2012 Sales 18355 -Sales return 280 18075 -Discount allowed 13 Net sales 18062 -Cost of sales Purchases 13200 -Discount received 18 13182 Carriage inwards 200 13382 Gross profit 4680 Expenses Salaries Expense 4000 Supplies Expense 1500 Insurance Expense 1200 Interest Expense 500 7200 Net loss (2520) Silva Trading Balance sheet as at 31st August 2012 Non-current assets Freehold Lands 24000 Office supplies 250 Notes receivable 7000 31250 true Assets Cash 987 Bank 2293 Prepaid Insurance 2000 5280 Current Liabilities Notes Payable 26000 Interest Payable 50 26050 Works capital (20770) 10480 Owners Equity Early Capital 15000 -Drawing 2000 13000 -Net loss (2520) 10480

Fail to Plan, Plan to Fail Essay

Those who fail to scheme, stick out to fail, or at least plan not to advance, according to the wariness literature. Look at school advantage, and in that respects similar agreement pretty much across the literature that the schools that improve ar the angiotensin-converting enzymes that plan. They establish a clear educational vision and consequent sh ard mission identify addresss or objectives that enable them to achieve that mission and thereby realise that vision audit themselves, thereby identifying areas for improvement and develop and implement educational programs on the basis of lead 57 that audit that address areas for improvement n ways that help them achieve the mission.That process, much of the literature suggests, is recursive or cyclical. The key in the school improvement literature seems to be that theres a first step, identifying your vision and shared mission, that then informs the next step, the planning process of identifying goals or objectives aligned w ith the vision and mission. Whether you look at the management literature or the school improvement literature, at its simplest, goal watchting is a way of asking what do we want, do we have what we need so that we can develop and implement what we plan, do our various goals elate to one another or are any in conflict, and is there any social occasion weve overlooked, including internal and out-of-door blockers?There, in 200 or so words, you have the whole easy-peasy school improvement planning story, and can stop reading and go and get that coffee right now. Or not. The problem, if youre still reading, is that planning and goal setting can sometimes lead to fragmented, uncoordinated programs with conflicting objectives that actually work against one another. Yes, setting specific, challenge goals, and developing and implementing educational programs to meet them can drive school mprovement, but as Adam Galinsky, author with Lisa Ordonez, Maurice Schweitzer and Max Bazerman of G oals gone wild, in the 58 teacher june/july 2009 Journal of the Academy of Management Perspectives, told the Boston Globes Drake Bennett, goal setting can lead to crazy behaviours to get mass to achieve them. We cont determination, write Ordonez, Schweitzer, Galinsky and Bazerman in Goals gone wild, that goal setting has been over- prescribed. In particular, we argue that goal setting has powerful and predictable side personal effects. Rather than cosmos offered as an over-the-counter salve for boosting performance, oal setting should be prescribed selectively, presented with a warning label and closely monitored. Tunnel vision To be fair, Ordonez, Schweitzer, Galinsky and Bazerman have their eyeball set on performance management, and its tendency to an outcome orientation like a defined sales target, say, or reduced time spent on a process, sooner than school improvement, and its tendency to the systemic development and implementation of programs. Nonetheless, people in a schoo l who want to improve it willing end up setting, or having set for them, some kind of performanceoriented goal. The message from Ordonez,Schweitzer, Galinsky and Bazerman is that they should pursue that goal with care. Lets consider why goals, as Ordonez and colleagues put it, go wild. The first reason, they argue, is that a goal might be inappropriate or so specific that in pursuing it, people ignore important elements of their behaviour, and mayhap even their attitudes and values, that are not specified by the goal. Suppose that a university department bases tenure decisions primarily on the number of articles that (academics) publish, they write. This goal will do (the academics) to accomplish the narrow objective of publishing articles.Other important objectives, however, such as research impact, teaching and service, may suffer. Worse, say Ordonez and colleagues, referring to Barry Staw and Richard Boettgers Task modification A neglected form of work performance in the Acad emy of Management Journal, goals can give us tunnel vision. In their study on the effects of goals, Staw and Boettger asked students to proofread a paragraph that contained both grammatical and capability errors. They found that those asked simply to do your best corrected both grammatical and content errors, while those who were asked specifically to correct grammar gnored content, and those who were asked specifically to correct content ignored grammar. The reason? Goals inform the individual about what behaviour is valued and appropriate, argue Staw and Boettger.The goal-setting problem, Ordonez and colleagues add, is that when we plan we tend to latch on to specific, measurable standards rather than complex sets of behaviours, and the attitudes and values that underlie them, precisely because specific standards are easy to measure and complex sets of behaviours are not. Command performance The goal-setting problem, essentially, depends n whether a goal is set by command or by c onsultation, negotiation or horror genuine collaboration. Goals set by command are, by definition, set by those with the power, whether you like it or not, to set them. The risk of such goal setting is that, first, it may lead to goals that are inappropriate or overly specific and, second, that leaders and their followers can be prone to what could be called target fixation or what Christopher Kayes, calls destructive goal pursuit in Destructive Goal Pursuit The Mount Everest disaster, to which Ordonez and colleagues also refer.As they note, Kayes identifies warning signs of leaders who have become excessively fixated on goals. These overstep in leaders who express narrowly- defined goals, associate goals with destiny, express an idealised future, offer goal-driven justifications, face public expectations and attempt to engage in face-saving behaviour. Its a useful checklist to use to audit yourself or a leader in your institution, but remember, we tend to latch on to specific m easurable things rather than complex sets of behaviours, and the attitudes and values that underlie them, precisely The goal-setting problem s that when we plan we tend to latch on to specific, measurable standards because specific standards are easy to measure. leadership 59 because the specifics are easy to measure and complex sets of behaviours are not.Performance anxiety Of course, one of the main planks of the education policy of this and the previous Commonwealth government is the standards docket the benchmarking of student achievement outcomes, which educators and schools then strive to achieve, and which at their worst could end up as league tables. Whether youre a fan of the standards agenda or not, its clearly the mother of all oals in Australian education, and worth considering in terms of goal setting. Ordonez and colleagues have some interesting observations to make, oddly about what they call the serious side-effects of setting challenging or so-called stretch go als. These, they argue, can lead people to choose riskier strategies and to cheat, and can create a culture of competition that erodes cooperation.On ethics, they argue, The interplay between organisational culture and goal setting is particularly important. An ethical organisational culture can rein in the harmful effects of goal setting, but at the same ime, the use of goals can influence organisational culture. Specifically, the use of goal setting, like management by objectives, creates a focus on ends rather than means. Goal setting impedes ethical decision making by making it harder for employees to recognise ethical issues and easier for them to rationalise unethical behaviour. Given that slight actions within an organisation can have broad implications for organisational culture, we postulate that aggressive goal setting within an organisation will foster an organisational climate dear for unethical behaviour.That is, not only does goal setting irectly motivate unethical b ehaviour, but its introduction may also motivate unethical behaviour indirectly by subtly altering an organisations culture. Handle with care If the bad news of the government-mandated standards agenda is that theres a risk of a form of goal setting that creates a focus on ends rather than means, the good news for schools is that the school-improvement literature puts a premium on one thing thats evident in the first 200 words of this story collegiality. With any luck, your school- improvement planning process and the goals that you consequently set are the response of onsultation, negotiation and collaboration, not command and, if they are, chances are yours are learning goals, not performance targets. As Ordonez and colleagues observe, performance goals inhibit learning.When individuals face a complex task, specific, challenging goals may inhibit learning from experience and degrade performance compared to exhortations to do your best. An individual who is narrowly focused on a performance goal will be less likely to try alternative methods that could help her learn how to perform a task. Overall, the narrow focus of specific goals can flout erformance, but prevent learning. As Edwin Locke and Gary Latham recommend in Building a practically useful theory of goal setting and task motivation A 35-year odyssey in American Psychologist, we should be setting learning goals in complex situations rather than performance goals. The problem, as Ordonez and colleagues note, is that, In practice, however, managers may have trouble ascertain when a task is complex enough to warrant a learning, rather than a performance, goal. The goal of setting the right goals is itself a challenging affair. by chance its time for a new axiom those ho fail to plan carefully, plan at their peril.

Paragraph About Elasticity and Inelasticity

Elasticity is the degree to which demand for a service or a intelligent varies from its terms. What happens most of the times is that when there are price decreases, sales increase and viceversa. This is known as elastic demand. For caseful, bicycles, sodas, jeans, cars have elastic demand because when they are brassy e reallyone wants to buy them, but when the price increases, battalion stop doing so (demand depends on the price). This happens with products such as this because they are not totally essential on people? s lifes (one can live without it) instead of gas (which is a product classified in inelastic demand) because people will always conduct it.Elasticity is authorized because it helps organizations decide on the best course of action regarding the service or the product. Also, it helps the government impose a new assess (when a new tax is imposed, the prices rise). If the demand is very elastic it will considerably fall when the price has risen and the government will not be able to earn judge revenue. Affects monopoly as well, If demand is very elastic, the effect of monopoly on prices is quite limited. In contrast, if the demand is relatively inelastic, monopolies will increase prices by a large margin.Hence, cinch helps both companies and government understand is what is being done produces results or not. In order to measure the rate of response of character demanded due to a price change, there is the Price Elasticity of Demand (PEoD) (% change in quality demanded)/(% change in price). Factors that can order this calculation include costs of duty period between products, and the importance of the good (is it necessary? ). Moreover, we have what is known as price elasticity of supply, measuring the relationship between change in quality supplied and a change in price.The formula for calculating is (%change in quality supplied)/(%change in price). There are also factors that can influence this calculation, such as spare capacity, st ocks, time periods, etc. Therefore, the income elasticity of supply is the response of quantity demanded and supplied due to a change in consumer disposable income. Also, it is very important to have in mind the cross elasticity of supply. This is the acceptance of the supply of good A to the change in price of the good B. For example a farmer grows potatoes and carrots.The cross elasticity of supply of carrots against potatoes is how much supply of carrots will change is the price of potatoes changes. Furthermore, inelasticity is a situation where the supply and demand for a good are unaffected when the price of that service or product changes. Even if the price goes higher, the demand will remain the same because people need of thee in order to survive. As I mentioned before, this is the case of gas since people need it, even if they complain about it prices they would, still need to buy it. opposite examples of products with inelasticity are bread, medicines, milk and water (mos t of them are recurring).

Evidence Based Management

academy of screwment check up on 2006, Vol. 31, No. 2, 256269. 2005 Presidential Address IS THERE SUCH A THING AS EVIDENCEBASED MANAGEMENT? DENISE M. ROUSSEAU Carnegie Mellon University I explore the forestall organization investigate offers for improved caution make out and how, at present, it falls short. Using yard-based medicine as an exemplar, I identify ship federal durationncy of closing the prevailing look for- cause gapthe failure of organizations and managers to base formulas on better available demo.I close with guidance for investigateers, educators, and managers for translating the rationales governing human expression and organisational processes into more effective instruction practice. grounds-based solicitude means translating principles based on trounce present into organizational practices. done present-based commission, practicing managers develop into experts who make organizational decisions conscious by social science and organizationa l researchp craft of the zeitgeist moving professional decisions away from personal preference and unsystematic give birth toward those based on the best available scientific tell apart (e. . , Barlow, 2004 DeAngelis, 2005 LemieuxCharles & Champagne, 2004 Rousseau, 2005 Walshe & Rundall, 2001). This links how managers make decisions to the continually expanding research base on cause-effect principles underlying human behavior and organizational actions. here(predicate) is what evidence-based prudence looks like. lets call this example, and true horizontal surface, Making Feedback People-Friendly. The executive get upor of a health c be system with twenty rural clinics nones that their military operation differs tremendously across the array of metrics used.This variability has nonhing to do with patient mix or employee characteristics. After interviewing clinic fellow members who complain virtually the sheer enactment of metrics for which they be accountable (200 i ndicators sent This expression is based on the address I gave at the annual meeting of the honorary society of counsel in Honolulu, Hawaii. Chuck Bantz, Andy Garman, capital of Minnesota S. Goodman, Ricky Griffin, Bob Hinings, Paul Hirsch, Sharon McCarthy, Sara Rynes, Laurie Weingart, and John Zanardelli contributed ideas toward its development. 256 onthly, comparing each clinic to the 19 others), the director recalls a principle from a long-ago course in psychology human decision manufacturing airs digest only process a hold in amount of information at any(prenominal) one snip. With input from clinic ply, a redesigned feedback system bespeaks shape. The new-fangled system uses three performance categories bang quality, cost, and employee satisfactionand smokes a summary measure for each of the three. Over the next year, through preparation of feedback in a more interpretable form, the health systems performance improves across the board, with low-performing units showi ng the niftyest improvement.In this example a principle (human beings idler process only a limited amount of information) is translated into practice ( generate feedback on a small set of critical performance indicators using damage people readily understand). Evidence-based management, as in the example above, derives principles from research evidence and translates them into practices that solve organizational enigmas. This isnt ever easy. Principles be credible only where the evidence is clear, and research findings can be tough for both researchers and practitioners to interpret.Moreover, practices that capitalize on a principles insights must befit the setting (e. g. , who is to say that the particular(prenominal) performance indicators the executive director uses ar pertinent to all units? ). Evidence-based management, despite these challenges, promises more consistent attainment of organizational goals, including those affecting employees, stockhold- 2006 Rousseau 2 57 ers, and the public in general. This is the promise that attracted me to organizational research at the beginning of my bring offer but it remains unfulfilled.THE GREAT HOPE AND THE GREAT DISAPPOINTMENT It is ironic that I came to write this article in my bureau as the sixtieth Academy of Management president. Management was a nasty word in my blue collar childhood, where everyone in the family was moved(p) by how the company my father range ated for managed its employees. When the supervisor frequently called my father to ask him to put in more overtime in an already long fiddle week, all of us kids got used to covering for him. If the phone rang when my father was home, hed view us answer it. We all knew what to say if it was the company occupation Dads not here. The idea of just telling the supervisor that he didnt want to conk out never occurred to my father, or anyone else in the family. The bane of disciplinary action or job loss loomed large, reinforced by dinner time stories about a bosss abusive behavior or more or little inexplicable company action. From this vantage point, the term management connotes harsh and arbitrary behavior, with undertones of otherness. It is a far cry from the dictionary definition of management as a judicious use of means to accomplish an end (Merriam-Webster, 2005).I selectd a wholly new perspective on management and managers when I became a business acquire professor. First, some(prenominal) business educatees, even at the MBA level, turn in never experienced what it is like to work for a good manager. In the inaugural business course I taught, in organizational behavior, I gave the students two assignments (1) write about the bruise boss you ever had, describing what made that person the worst and how it impacted you, and (2) write about the best boss you ever had, describing what made that person the best and how it impacted you.My MBA students with an average of five years of regular work experie nce had no problem with assignment 1. For many of them, the assignment was cathartic, and they frequently exceeded its assigned page limit in writing vituperative portrayals of managers motleyly presented as self-centered, capricious, or otherwise lacking in capability or character. Assign- ment 2 was another matter. Many students had great difficulty thinking of anyone who dependant as the best manager. Over a third couldnt think of any boss they could even describe as good.To the extent that people manage others the way they themselves grant been managed, I came to worry about what the future held for these managers-in-the- reservation. Nonetheless, while these business students may never gull had a great boss, they themselves still hoped to become one. (By the way, I own since abandoned this assignment in favor of more selfreflection on the manager students want to become and ways they can develop themselves to move closer to that ideal. ) Second, approximately business s tudents have never worked for a great company either. There is the possibility that only dissatisfied people quit their jobs to study full time for an MBA, but in this regard I suspect availability bias. ) I never have had any difficulty getting students to sh atomic number 18 their experiences of dysfunctional organizational practices. However, when it comes to identifying a more functional way to motivate workers or restructure firms, they ar often at a loss. Still, in-class discussions and students consume future plans suggest that they do hope to join a company (or to start one) that is better managed than those they have worked for so far.In class and out, I have spent a divide of time helping students check off how to make a business case, with their future employers in mind, for creating financially successful firms that are good for people too. I have come to feel tremendous respect and affection for those students who have the personal aspiration to be a great manager i n a great company. Out of these personal and professional experiences, I have nurtured my great hopethat, through research and development, we can raise effective organizations where managers make well-informed, less arbitrary, and more reflective decisions.My great disappointment, however, has been that research findings dont appear to have transferred well to the workplace. Instead of a scientific understanding of human behavior and organizations, managers, including those with MBAs, protract to rely largely on personal experience, to the exclusion of more systematic knowledge. Alternatively, managers follow bad advice from business books or consultants based on weak evidence. Because diddly Welch or 258 Academy of Management Review April McKinsey says it, that doesnt make it true. Several decades of research on attribution bias indicate that people have a difficult time drawing unbiased conclusions regarding why they are successful, often giving more credit to themselves than the facts warrant. Management gurus are in no way immune. ) Sadly, there is poor uptake of management practices of cognise effectiveness (e. g. , goal setting and performance feedback Locke & Latham, 1984). Even in businesses populated by MBAs from top-ranked universities, there is un repaird wide variation in managerial practice patterns (e. g. how or if goals are set, selection decisions made, rewards allocated, or bringing up investments determined) and, worse, persistent use of practices known to be largely powerless (e. g. , downsizing Cascio, Young, & Morris, 1997 high ratios of executive to rankand-file employee compensation Cowherd & Levine, 1992). The result is a research-practice gap, indicating that the answer to this articles title question is noat least not yet. What it means to close this gap and how evidencebased management might become a reality are the matters I turn to next.THE EVIDENCE-BASED ZEITGEIST The phrase evidence-based is a buzzword in contemporary pu blic policy, with all the risk of triteness and superficiality that buzzword status conveys. Lets not be misled by its received popularity. Evidence-based practice has tremendous substance and discipline behind it. We can observe its impact in two fields highly influenced by legislative decisions policing and secondary education. In evidence-based policing, community police officers are trained to treat criminal suspects politely, because doing so has been found to reduce repeat offenses (Sherman, 2002 Tyler, 1990).In evidence-based education, many secondary schools have restored the practice of social promotion, where students who have difficulty passing their courses, even after several tries, are advanced to the next grade level. Research indicates that social promotions benefits outweigh its costs, because a high school diploma increases the likelihood of subsequent employment and lowers the incidence of drug use, even among students who wouldnt otherwise have qualified for th at diploma (Jimerson, Anderson, & Whipple, 2002 National Association of School Psychologists, 2005).Evidence-based practice is a paradigm for making decisions that integrate the best available research evidence with decision maker expertise and client/customer preferences to guide practice toward more desirable results (e. g. , Sackett, Straus, Richardson, Rosenberg, & Haynes, 2000). Proponents are skeptical about experience, wisdom, or personal credentials as a basis for asserting what works. The question is What is the evidence? not Who says so? (Sherman, 2002 221). The answer, as the criminologist Lawrence W.Sherman indicates, can be graded from weak to strong, based on rules of scientific inference, where in advance-and-after comparisons are stronger than simultaneous correlationsrandomized, controlled tests stronger than longitudinal cohort analyses. Strong evidence trumps weak, irrespective of how charismatic the evidences presenter is. Sherman sums it up We are all entitled to our own opinions, but not to our own facts (2002 223). Medicine is a success story as the branch domain to institutionalize evidence-based practice. Evidence-based medicine is the integration of individual clinical expertise and the best external evidence.Its origins date back to 1847, when Ignaz Semmelweis discovered the role that infection played in childbirth fever. Semmelweis was vilified by physicians of the time for his assertion that it was doctors themselves who were infecting women by carrying germs in the midst of dead bodies and patients. Nonetheless, his work influenced the formulation of germ supposition, which gained coincideance with the work of Lister and Pasteur forty years later (Wikipedia, 2005). Extensive infrastructures advance evidence-based health sustainment (e. g. , the U. S.National Institutes of health and Institute of Medicine, the Canadian Health Services Research Foundation, and the Cochrane Collaboration). Evidence-based-clinical care as a way of animateness in health care organizations is of relatively recent vintage, enjoying its greatest egress after 1990. (If you are wondering what physicians did in the beginning, the answer is what managers are doing now, but without medicines added advantages from common professional training and malpractice sanctions. ) The attributes of evidencedbased medicine provide a useful reference point 2006 Rousseau 259 for exploring what its counterpart in management might look like.By way of example, germ theory is widely understood by clinical care givers. It has led to broad application of infection control systems (gowns, sterile motifles, and sterile instruments), medicines to avoid or redress infections, and supporting practices (handwashing). Its application has led to radical but important interpretations of gainmingly distant events. Incidence of heart attack, for example, increases immediately after having ones dentition cleaned. Reflecting on this correlation in light of germ theory led to recognition that teeth cleaning disperses mouth bacteria into the hearts arteries. definite bacteria in these arteries create conditions that give rise to heart attacks. Recognizing this causal link led to a risk-reducing solution giving heart patients antibiotics to take before dental treatments as a preventive. This application of medical evidence involved cause-and-effect connections how dental practice can disperse mouth bacteria into the hearts arteries. It in like manner required isolation of variations that affect desired outcomes, requiring knowledge of the mechanisms triggering heart attacks (and, in this case, knowledge that gum disease may itself trigger heart attacks see, for instance, Desvarieux et al. 2005). and more than scientific insight is needed to create evidence-based practice. In fact, only some physicians recommend this preventive action for their heart patients. Others may not see the risk as that great, are unaware of the finding, or merely have forgotten to make this preventive action part of their standard orders for cardiac patients. The enfolding of other practitioners further complicates matters dentists are not necessarily educated to inquire about heart conditions. Organizational factors affect whether evidence-based practice occurs.In health care settings certain features increase the likelihood that an at-risk patient depart get the preventive medication. Social networks and organizational culture matter. It helps if the patients physician is part of a practice or a hospital where others recommend such preventive care. Similarly, impeding this evidence-based practice is the fact that dentists are unlikely to be in the homogeneous professional networks as physicians. In a hospital where medical leadership promotes evidencebased medicine, more physicians are likely to e aware of the finding. Such settings are besides likely to have staff in-services to update physician knowledge where this practice m ight be discussed. Relatedly, participation in research increases the salience of the evidence base. It helps if physicians in the immediate environment have participated in clinical research and are engaged in one of the several online communities that review clinical evidence and soce create and disseminate recommendations, which raises the next point access to information on those practices the evidence supports.Physicians have online services that provide ready access to clinical practice best supported by research, based on the review and recommendation of health care experts (e. g. , Cochrane Collaboration). Such services capitalize on the information blowup and internet connections to build communities of practice enabling experts to communicate their knowledge, identify the best-quality evidence, and disseminate it broadly to care givers (Jadad, Haynes, Hunt, & Browman, 2000). Decision supports can be designed to make it easier to action evidence-based practices.A patient care protocol might be written specifying that each heart patient and all post-op cardiac cases be advised of the need to premedicate before teeth cleaning, along with a prescription written for and given to the patient at discharge. This protocol might be formalized to the extent that a premedication instruction is written in each cardiac patients discharge orders. Last, a web of factorsindividual (knowledge), organizational (access to knowledgeable others, support for evidence use), and institutional (dissemination of evidence-based practice)promotes, sustains, and institutionalizes evidence-based medicine.Britains national health system, for example, promotes evidencebased practice using the Cochrane Collaborations recommendations as the standard. Medicare in the United States publishes information on whether hospitals use proven remedies in patient care (Kolata, 2004). In sum, features characterizing evidencebased practice include light uponing about cause-effect connections in professional practices isolating the variations that measurably affect desired outcomes 260 Academy of Management Review April creating a culture of evidence-based decision making and research participation using information-sharing communities to reduce overuse, underuse, and misuse of ad hoc practices building decision supports to promote practices the evidence validates, along with techniques and artifacts that make the decision easier to execute or perform (e. g. , checklists, protocols, or standing orders) and having individual, organizational, and institutional factors promote access to knowledge and its use. Now allows consider what such practice might mean for management and organizations.WHY EVIDENCE-BASED MANAGEMENT IS IMPORTANT AND TIMELY Evidence-based management is not a new idea. Chester Barnard (1938) promoted the development of a natural science of organization to better understand the unanticipated problems associated with sourceity and consent. Since Barn ards time, however, we have struggled to connect science and practice without a vision or model to do so. Evidence-based management, in my opinion, provides the needed model to guide the closing of the research-practice gap. In this section I address why evidence-based management is timely and practical.Calling Attention to Facts Big E Evidence and little e evidence An evidence orientation shows that decision quality is a direct function of available facts, creating a demand for reliable and valid information when making managerial and organizational decisions. Improving information continues a elan begun in the quality movement over thirty years ago, giving systematic fear to discrete facts, indicative of quality (e. g. , machine performance, customer interactions, employee attitudes and behavior Evans & Dean, 2000).This trend continues in recent developments regarding open-book management (Case, 1995 Ferrante & Rousseau, 2001) and the use of organizational fact finding and exper imentation to improve decision quality (Pfeffer & Sutton, in press). In all the attention we now give to evidence, it helps to differentiate what might be called Big E Evidence from little e evidence. Big E Evidence refers to generalizable knowledge regarding cause-effect connections (e. g. , specific goals promote higher attainment than general or vague goals) derived from scientific method actingsthe focus of this article.Little e evidence is local or organization specific, as exemplified by root cause analysis and other fact-based approaches the total quality movement introduced for organizational decision making (Deming, 1993 Evans & Dean, 2000). It refers to data systematically gathered in a particular setting to inform local decisions. As the saying goes, facts are our friends, when local efforts to accumulate information relevant to a particular problem lead to more effective solutions. Although decision makers who rely on scientific principles are more likely to gather fact s systematically in order to pick out an appropriate course of action (e. . , Sackett et al. , 2000), fact gathering (evidence) doesnt necessarily lead decision makers to use social science knowledge (Evidence) in interpretating these facts. In my introductory example of the health care system, the executive director might have concluded that the performance differences across the twenty clinics were out-of-pocket to something about the clinics or their managers. It was his knowledge of a basic principle in psychology that gave him an alternative and, ultimately, more effective interpretation.However, systematic attention to local facts can prompt managers to look for principles that account for their observations. The opening example illustrates how scientific principles and local facts go together to solve problems and make decisions. Opportunity to come apart Implement managerial Decisions In highly competitive environments, good execution may be as important as the strategic choices managers make. Implementation is a strong suit of evidence-based management through the wealth of research available to guide effective execution (e. g. , goal setting and feedback Locke & Latham, 1984 feedback and redesign Goodman, 2001).Indeed, with greater orientation toward scientific evidence, health care managements guidelines frequently reference social and organizational research on implementation (e. g. , Lemieux-Charles & Champayne, 2004 Lomas, Culyer, McCutcheon, 2006 Rousseau 261 McAuley, & Law, 2005). The continued wide variation we observe in how organizations execute decisions (e. g. , in goal clarity, stakeholder participation, feedback processes, and allowance for redesign) is remarkable, given the advanced knowledge we possess about effective implementation and what is at stake should implementation fail.Better Managers, Better Learning Given the powerful impact managers decisions have on the fate of their firms, managerial competence is a critical and ofte n scarce resource. meliorate managerial competence is a direct outgrowth of a greater focus on evidencebased management. Managers need real learning, not fads or false conclusions. When managers acquire a systematic understanding of the principles governing organizations and human behavior, what they learn is validthat is to say, it is repeatable over time and generalizable across websites. It is less likely that what managers learn will be wrong.Today, the poor information commonly available to managers regarding the organizational consequences of their decisions means that experiences are likely to be misinterpreted subject to perceptual gaps and misunderstandings. Consider the case of a supervisor who overuses threats and punishment as behavioral tools. A punisher who keys on the fact that punishing suppresses behavior can comp permitely miss its other consequenceits softness to encourage positive behavior. Status differences and organizational politics make it unlikely that the punisher will learn the true consequences of that style, by limiting and distorting feedback.The reality is that managers tend to work in settings that make valid learning difficult. This difficulty is compounded by the widespread uptake of organizational fads and fashions, adopted overenthusiastically, implemented inadequately, then discarded untimely in favor of the up-to-the-minute trend (Walshe & Rundall, 2001 437 see also Staw & Epstein, 2000). In such settings managers cannot even learn why their decisions were wrong, let alone what alternatives would have been right. Evidence-based management leads to valid learning and continuous improvement, rather than a checkered career based on false assumptions.Organizational legitimacy is another product of evidence-based management. Where decisions are based on systematic causal knowledge, conditioned by expertise leading to successful implementation, firms find it easier to deliver on promises made to stockholders, employees, cu stomers, and others (e. g. , Goodman & Rousseau, 2004 Rucci, Kirn, & Quinn, 1998). Legitimacy is a result of making decisions in a systematic and informed fashion, thus making a firms actions more readily justifiable in the eyes of stakeholders.Yet, given evidence-based managements numerous advantages, why then is the research-practice gap so large? I next turn to the array of factors that set to perpetuate this evidence-deprived status quo. WHY MANAGERS DONT PRACTICE EVIDENCE-BASED MANAGEMENT The research-practice gap among managers results from several factors. First and foremost, managers typically do not know the evidence. less(prenominal) than 1 percent of HR managers read the academic literature regularly (Rynes, Brown, & Colbert, 2002), and the consultants who advise them are unlikely to do so either.Despite the explosion of research on decision making, individual and group performance, business strategy, and other domains directly tied to organizational practices, few pract icing managers access this work. (I note, however, that of the four periodicals the Academy publishes, it is the empirical Academy of Management ledger to which company libraries most widely subscribe. So there is some recognition that this research exists ) Evidence-based management can threaten managers personal immunity to run their organizations as they see fit.A similar resistance characterized supervisory responses to scientific management nearly 100 years ago, when Frederick Taylors structured methods for up(a) efficiency were discarded because they were believed to interfere with managements prerogatives in supervising employees. Part of this pushback stems from the belief that good management is an artthe romance of leadership school of thought (e. g. , Meindl, Erlich, & Dukerich, 1985), where a shift to evidence and analysis connotes loss of creativity and autonomy. Such concerns are not unique physicians have wrestled with similar dilemmas, expressed in 62 Academy of M anagement Review April the aptly titled article False Dichotomies EBM, Clinical Freedom and the Art of Medicine (Parker, 2005). managerial work itself differs from clinical work and other fields engaged in evidencebased practice in important ways. First, managerial decisions often involve long time lags and little feedback, as in the case of a recruiter hiring someone to eventually take over a senior position in the firm. Years may pass before the true quality of that decision can be discerned, and, by then, the recruiter and others involved are likely to have moved on (Jaques, 1976).Managerial decisions often are influenced by other stakeholders who impose constraints (Miller, 1992). Obtaining stakeholder support can involve politicking and compromise, altering the decision made, or even whether it is made at all. Incentives tied to managerial decisions are subject to contradictory pressures from senior executives, stockholders, customers, and employees. Last, its not always obviou s that a decision is being made, given the array of interactions that compose managerial work (Walshe & Randall, 2001).A manager who declines to train a subordinate, for example, may not realize that particular act ultimately may lead the employee to quit. Evidence-based management can be a tough sell to many managers, because management, in contrast to medicine or nursing, is not a profession. Given the diverse backgrounds and education of managers, there is limited understanding of scientific method. With no formally mandated education or credentials (and even an MBA is no guarantee), practicing managers have no body of divided up knowledge.Lacking shared scientific knowledge to add weight to an evidence-based decision, managers commonly rely on other bases (e. g. , experience, formal power, incentives, and threats) when making decisions acceptable to their superiors and constituents. Firms themselvesparticularly those in the private welkin contribute to the limited value placed on science-based management practice. Although pharmaceutical firms advertise their investment in biotechnology and basic research, the typical business does not have the advancement of managerial knowledge in its mission.Historically leading corporations such as Cadbury, IBM, and General Motors were officiously engaged in research on company selec- tion and training practices, employee motivation, and supervisory behavior. Their efforts contributed substantially to the early managerial practice evidence base. But few organizations directly do their own managerial research or regularly collaborate with those who do, despite the considerable benefits from industry-university collaborations (Cyert & Goodman, 1997) the globally experienced time crunch in managerial work and the press for short-term results have reduced such collaborations to dispensable frills.Nonetheless, hospitals participate in clinical research and school systems evaluate policy interventions. In contrast to more evidence-oriented domains, such as policing and education, management is most often a private sector activity. It is less influenced by public policy pressures promoting similar practices while creating comparative advantage via distinctiveness. Businesses are characterized by the belief that the particulars of the organization, its practices, and its problems are special and uniquea widespread phenomenon termed the uniqueness riddle (Martin, Feldman, Hatch, & Sitkin, 1983).Observed among clinical care givers and law enforcement practitioners too, the uniqueness paradox can interfere with transfer of research findings across settingsunless dispelled by better education and experience with evidencebased practice (e. g. , Sackett et al. , 2000). Yet, despite all these factors, the most important understanding evidence-based management is still a hope and not a reality is not due to managers themselves or their organizations. Rather, professors like me and the programs in which we te ach must accept a large measure of blame. We typically do not educate managers to know or use scientific evidence.Research evidence is not the substitution focus of study for undergraduate business students, MBAs, or executives in continuing education programs (Trank & Rynes, 2003), where case examples and popular concepts from nonresearch-oriented magazines such as the Harvard Business Review take center stage. Consistent with the diminution of research in behavioral course work, business students and practicing managers have no ready access to research. No communities of experts vet research regarding effective management practice (in contrast to the collaboratives that vet health care, criminal justice, and educational research e. . , Campbell Collaboration, 2006 Rousseau 263 2005 Cochrane Collaboration, 2005). Few MBAs determine a peer-reviewed journal during their student days, let alone later. Consequently, its time to look critically at the role we educators play in limitin g managers knowledge and use of research evidence. EVIDENCE-BASED MANAGEMENT AND OUR section AS EDUCATORS My biggest surprise as the Academy president turned out to be the most frequent topic of emails sent to me by Academy members complaints about our journals from self-identified direction-oriented members.A typical email goes like this I want to let you know what a waste the Academy journals are. Theres nothing in them at all pertinent to my teaching. The Academy should be for everybody, not just researchers. My first response was to feel guilty (why hadnt I seen this? ). But then I started to think more deeply about what this message implies. It says that educators arent finding ideas in journals that cause them to change what they teach. This might mean that current research is irrelevant to whats being taught if educators focus on other topics.It could mean that the kind of information research articles provide about principles or practices is insufficient to determine what settings or circumstances their findings apply to. Or it could even mean that professors arent updating their course material when research findings differ from what they teach. These emails prompted me to wonder what exactly we are teaching. If we are teaching what research findings support, the content of a class has to change from time to time, with new evidence or better-specified theory.The concern that prompted this address stemmed from these emails the role we educators play in the research-practice gap. How Professors Contribute to the ResearchPractice Gap Management education is itself often not evidence based, something Trank and Rynes implicitly recognize (2003) as the dumbing down of management education. They also persuasively demonstrated that, in place of evidence, behavioral courses in business schools focus on general achievements (e. g. , team building, fight man- agement) and current case examples.Through these stimulating, ostensibly relevant activities, we ca pture student interest, helping to deflect the criticism How is this going to help me get my first job? Business schools reinforce this by relying heavily on student ratings instead of assessing real learning (Rynes, Trank, Lawson, & Ilies, 2003). Stimulating courses and active learning must be core features of training in evidence-based management, because these educational features are good pedagogy. The manner and content of our approaches to behavioral courses perpetuate the research-practice gap.Weak Research-Education Connection Pick up any popular management textbook and you will find that Frederick Herzbergs work lives, but not Max Webers. Herzbergs longdiscredited two-factor theory is typically included in the motivation section of management textbooks, despite the fact that it was discredited as an artifact of method bias over thirty years ago (House & Wigdor, 1967). I asked a famous author of many best-selling textbooks why this was so. Because professors like to teach H erzberg he answered. Students want updated business examples but cant really tell if the research claims are valid. This conversation suggests that professors are likely to teach what they learned in graduate school and not necessarily what current research supports. (Since many management professors are adjuncts valued for their practical experience but are from diverse backgrounds, even educators of comparable professional age may not share scientific knowledge. ) I suspect that the persistence of Herzberg will continue until all the professors who learned the twofactor theory in graduate school (c. 960 1970) retire. However, business schools may discourage inclusion of some well-substantiated topics because they dont sound managerial. Paul Hirsch, the well-known sociologist, tells the story that when he flies business class, his seatmates ask what he does for a living. When he identifies himself as a business school professor, the next customary question is What do you teach? As a sociologist steeped in Weber and the century of research he spawned, Paul used to say, Bureaucracy. His seatmates frequently 264Academy of Management Review April moved to the opposite wing at that point, until Paul wised up and found a more appeal response Management (personal communication). Paul notes that managers still need to understand bureaucratic processes, so he hasnt changed what he teaches only what he calls it. I do this too I no longer call socialization, training, and rules substitutes for leadership (Kerr & Jermier, 1978), having found that the last thing a would-be manager wants to hear is how he or she can be replaced. The implications are clear.We frame, and perhaps even slant, what we teach to make it more palatable. Can it be we are on that slippery slope of avoiding teaching the most current social science findings relevant to managers and organizations, from downsizing to ethical decision making, because we fear our audience wont like the implications? Failure to Manage Student Expectations Student expectations do drive course content, and current evidence indicates that there is a strong preference for turnkey, ready-to-use solutions to problems these students will face in their first jobs (Trank & Rynes, 2003).What efforts do we make to manage these expectations? Unless students are persuaded to value sciencebased principles and their own role in turning these principles into sound organizational practice, it will be nigh hopeless for faculty to resist the pressure to teach only todays solutions. We might start by asking students who they think updates more effectivelypractitioners trained in solutions or in principles. Effective practices in 2006 need not be the same as those in 2016, let alone 2036, when the majority of todays business students will still be working.If we teach solutions to problems, such as how to obtain accurate information on a workers performance, students will acquire a toolperhaps, for example, 360-degr ee feedback. Yet they wont understand the underlying cognitive processes (whether feedback is task related or self-focused), social factors (the relationships between ratees and raters), and organizational mechanisms (used for developmental purposes or compensation decisions), which explain how, when, and why 360-degree feedback might work (or not).Imagine a doctor who knows to prescribe antibiotics to patients with bronchitis (a common recommendation in the 1980s before recognition of antibiotic overuse Franklin, 2005) but doesnt understand the basic physiology that can lead other therapies to be comparable, more effective, or have fewer downsides. In the case of feedback, basic social science research is quite robust regarding how feedback impacts behavior (Kinicki & Kreitner, 2003). Such knowledge is likely to take broader utility and more durable solutions over time than training in any particular feedback tool.Lack of Models for Evidence-Based Management Case methods are de ri gueur in business schools, helping to develop students analytic skills and familiarity with conditions they will face as practicing managers. The cases that I find most effective are those that have an individual manager as a protagonist (as opposed to those that describe an organization without developing one or two central personalities). A central character creates tension and evokes student identification with the events taking place.That character is typically a manager, who can be the change agent responsible for solving the problem or a accelerator for the dysfunctional behavior on which the cases focuses. Either way, students have a modela positive or negative referentfrom which they can learn how to make out (or not) in the future. As with most complex behaviors, from parenting to managing, people learn better when they have competent models (Bandura, 1971). Nonetheless, in twenty-five years of using cases in class, I cannot recall a single time in which a protagonist re flected on research evidence in the course of his or her decision making.No Expectation for Updating Evidence-Based Knowledge Throughout the Managers Career Upon graduation, few business students recognize that the knowledge they may have acquired can be surpassed over time by new findings. Although social science knowledge continues to expand, business school training does not prepare graduates to tap into it. Neither students nor managers have clear ideas of how to update their knowledge as new evidence emerges. 2006 Rousseau 265 There are few models of what an expert manager knows that a novice does not (see Hill, 1992, for an exception).In contrast, expert nurses are known to behave in very different ways from novices or less-than-expert midcareer nurses (Benner, 2001). They more rapidly size up a situation accurately and deal simultaneously with more co-occurring factors. In the professions, extensive postgraduate development exists to deepen expertise to produce a higher quali ty of practice. In contrast, business schools often imply that MBAs know all they need to know when they graduate. WHAT WE CAN DO TO CLOSE THE RESEARCH-PRACTICE GAP There is a lot we can do to close the researchpractice gap, both as individual educators and through working incarnately.Manage Student Expectations We can manage student expectations with regard to the role of behavioral course work in the students broader career. I often introduce myself to full-time students by telling them that the easiest teaching I do has always been to executives, because these experienced managers come to the program convinced that human behavior and group processes are the most critical things they need to learn. At this point in their careers, our full-time students can only be novices whose expertise will grow with time and active effort on their part to understand the dynamics of behavior in organizations.Try asking students what the difference is between ten years of experience and one year of experience repeated ten times. Then let them forecast what ten years of experience in becoming more expert on behavior and group processes in organizations would look like (the types of job, people, settings, etc. ). Let them also imagine this for one year repeated ten times. Reflecting on these contrasting visions of their careers gives students an opportunity to raise their expectations of themselves as professional managers.There are various related means for managing expectations, including the creation of learning contracts based on the learners anticipated future roles, the behavioral knowledge and skills these roles will necessitate, and how that knowledge and skill will be acquired in the course (Goodman, 2005). It is easier to do this as part of a larger curriculum framed by anticipated future rolesthe would-be-managers story (Schank, 2003). Important also is the next feature providing models of evidence-based practice and evidence-based managers.Provide Models of Evid ence-Based Practice We need to model evidence-based practice in our teaching and in the curriculum. mental research on learning offers a useful guide for course/curriculum practices (e. g. , Kersting, 2005). These include exposing the learner to models of competent evidence-based managers. I have been fortunate to encounter such a person. John Zanardelli is the CEO of Asbury Heights, the Methodist Home for the Aged, Mt. Lebanon, Pennsylvania. I first met John in an executive course on change management at Carnegie Mellon.He peppered me with questions about skills, information, and management tactics and wanted to know the research support behind my answers. Trained as an epidemiologist, John understands the scientific method and regularly looks for scientific corroboration of ideas he comes across in popular management books and from self-proclaimed experts. (Not surprisingly, the calls for evidence-based management largely have come from health care professionals and scholars e. g . , DeAngelis, 2005 Kovner, Elton, & Billings, 2005. I knew that I was seeing an unusual manager, to say the least, when John, face up with the need to redesign his organizations compensation practices, went off to the Carnegie Mellon library to read J. Stacy Adams equity theory His organizations vision statement is built just about the concept Where Loving Care and Science Come Together. Managers such as John Zanardelli provide exemplars of the complex set of proficiencies required to become a master management practitioner. Using them as examples reinforces the notion that the typical twenty-something student is a novice taking first steps along the path to becoming an expert (e. . , Benner, 2001 Hill, 1992). Active practice, self-reflection, and feedback are core learning principles (Schon, 1983). ? Developing student competence through active practice entails project work supported by ongoing reflection and debriefing regarding what constitutes valid learning and effective be havior. Similarly, our educational practices, 266 Academy of Management Review April courses, and curricula need that same reflection and evolution to effectively model evidencebased teaching. Promote Active Use of Evidence Students need to know that evidence is available, and they need to learn how to apply it.This necessitates a balance between teaching principlesthat is, cause-effect knowledgeand practicesthat is, solutions to organizational problemsthough the mix is subject to dispute (Bennis & OToole, 2005). In the spirit of making the course tell a story students can understand and participate in, a course conveying how a novice becomes an expert manager, like any good story, involves a succession of experiences, trials, failures, and successes (Schank, 2003). That story line is marked by the acquisition of distinctly different kinds of knowledge.There is declarative knowledge regarding principles or cause-effect relationships. Students can acquire principles in a variety of w ays. They might address the appropriateness of group incentives versus individual incentives by locating evidence in a textbook, in journals, or online. Informing students of the evidence through lectures and books has its place, but there is value in identifying and deriving the principles themselves from the sources that will remain available to them throughout their careers.Students can learn a good deal from actively accessing evidence, using it to solve problems, reflectingand trying again. Indeed, one of the most powerful forms of learning may be deriving principles from experience and reflection, as when students review cases and then derive the principles governing the underlying outcomes (Thompson, Gentner, & Loewenstein, 2003). Thompson and her colleagues found that students learned better when they developed principles from cases than when they derived solutions, a finding consistent with basic psychological research on learning (Anderson, Fincham, & Douglass, 1997).Actua lly using evidence takes a metaskill the ability to turn evidence-based principles into solutions. A form of procedural knowledge, a solution-oriented approach to evidence use is comparable to product design, where end users and knowledgeable others familiar with the situation in which the product will be used jointly participate in specifying its features and functionality. Perhaps one of the first products of behavioral research in organizations was the revolving spindle restaurants use to convey customer orders to the kitchen.William Foote Whyte (1948) discovered that status differences between restaurent wait staff (typically female) and the (male) chef led to conflicts, because chefs disliked taking orders from women. The revolving order spindle to which waitresses could attach an order and spin it in the direction of the kitchen allowed customer orders to be conveyed impersonally, reducing workplace conflict and improving communication. Other researchbased products include dec ision supports such as checklists to guide a performance review or action plans to conduct meetings in ways that build consensus (e. . , Mohrman & Mohrman, 1997), effectively translating the evidence into guides for action. Build Collaborations Among Managers, Researchers, and Educators As the saying goes, it takes a village to educate people. Changing how we educate managers in professional schools necessitates a collective attitude and behavior shift among educators, researchers, current managers, and recruiters. Pfeffer and Suttons (in press) book calls attention to managerial heroespeople who use evidence to turn troubled companies around and/or to create sustained successes.As in the case of any change in collective attitudes (Gladwell, 2002), turning evidence-based management from a practice of a prognosticative few into the mainstream requires champions credible people like Pfeffer and Suttons managerial heroesto advertise its value. Networks of individuals, excited by what evidence-based management makes possible, need to exist to disseminate it to others. maven such collaborative network might parallel the Cochrane Collaboration in medicine and the Campbell Collaboration in criminal justice and education. Such a community has been advocated to promote evidenced-based management of health care organizations Kovner et al. , 2005, suggesting that communities of experts might effectively be built around the management of specific kinds of organizations. ) Each represents a worldwide community of experts created to provide ready access to a particular 2006 Rousseau 267 body of evidence and the practices it supports. Community members, practitioners as well as researchers, collaborate in summarizing stateof-the-art knowledge on practices known to be important.Information is presented in sufficient detail regarding evidence and sources of outcome variation to reduce underuse, overuse, and misuse. While these communities are geographically distributed, they also sponsor face to face meetings to promote community building, commitment, and learning. Their major product is online access to information, designed for easy use. EVIDENCE-BASED PRACTICE CAN BE MISUNDERSTOOD On a cautionary note, the differentiate evidencebased practice can be misapplied. It can be used to characterize superficial practices (another companys so-called best practice or the latest tool consultants are selling).Alternatively, it can be used as a club (the kind with a nail in it) to force compliance with a standard that may not be universally applicable. One downside of poor implementation of evidence-based medicine is the challenge the British health care system has faced owing to the use of the Cochrane Collaborations recommendations to regulate clinical care decisions, with enforcement of the recommendations regardless of their suitability for particular patients (Eysenbach & Kummervold, 2005). Evidence-based practice is not onesize-fits-all its the best curr ent evidence coupled with informed expert judgment.OUR OWN ZEITGEIST PROMOTING EVIDENCE-BASED PRACTICE OF MANAGEMENT Forty years elapsed between Semmelweiss discoveries and the formulation of germ theory. One hundred years later, even basic infectionreducing practices such as hand washing still are not consistently performed in hospitals (Johns Hopkins Medicine, 2004). Considering the personal growth and social and organizational changes evidence-based practice requires, our own evidence-based management zeitgeist still has plenty of time to run. The first challenge is consciousness raising regarding the rich array of evidence that can improve effectiveness of managerial decisions.Educating opinion leaders, including prominent executives and educators, in the nature and value of evidence-based approaches builds champions who can get the word out. Updating management education with the latest research must be ongoing, demanding that educators and textbook writers apprise themselves o f new research findings. The onus is on researchers to make generalizability clearer by providing better information in their reports regarding the context in which their findings were observed. All parties need to put greater emphasis on learning how to translate research findings into solutions.In the case of researchers, too a good deal information that might affect the translations of findings to practice remains tacit, in the apparent minutiae research reports omit, known only to the researcher. Educators need to help students acquire the metaskills for designing solutions around the research principles they teach. Managers must learn how to experiment with possible evidence-based solutions and to adapt them to particular settings. We need knowledgesharing networks composed of educators, researchers, and manager/practitioners to help create and disseminate management-oriented research summaries and practices that best evidence supports.Building a culture in which managers lear n to learn from evidence is a critical aspect of effective evidence use (Pfeffer & Sutton, in press). Developing managerial competence historically has been viewed as a training issue, underestimating the investment in collective capabilities that is needed (Mohrman, Gibson, & Mohrman, 2001). The promises of evidence-based management are manifold. It affords higher-quality managerial decisions that are better implemented, and it yields outcomes more in line with organizational goals.Those who use evidence (E and e) and learn to use it well have comparative advantage over their less competent counterparts. Managers, educators, and researchers can learn more systematically throughout their careers regarding principles that govern human behavior and organizational actions and the solutions that enhance contemporary organizational performance and member experience. A focus on evidence use may also ultimately help to blur the boundaries between researchers, educators, and managers, creat ing a lively community with many feedback loops where information is sys- 268 Academy of Management ReviewApril tematically gathered, evaluated, disseminated, implemented, reevaluated, and shared. The promise of evidence-based management contrasts with the staying power or stickiness of the status quo. Like the QWERTY keyboard created for manual typewriters, but inefficient in the age of word processing, management-asusual survives, despite being out of step with contemporary needs. Failure to evolve toward evidence-based management, however, is costlier than mere inefficiency. 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